Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Tradition in Cicero’s Works

Introduction

The figure of Pythagoras occupies an important place in the philosophical treatises of Marcus Tullius Cicero. Although the Roman philosopher does not devote a separate work to him, numerous references in various writings allow us to reconstruct the image of Pythagoreanism in the Roman intellectual tradition of the 1st century BCE.

Pythagoras is mentioned by Cicero in the treatises De re publica, De legibus, De senectute, De divinatione, and De officiis. In these texts, he appears not only as a mathematician or ancient sage, but as the founder of a philosophical school and a distinctive way of life.

For Cicero, the Pythagorean tradition represents one of the most ancient sources of Greek philosophy. It combines a cosmological doctrine of the harmony of the world, religious ideas about divine reason, the doctrine of the immortality of the soul, and a system of philosophical practices.

Modern scholars note that in the ancient tradition Pythagoras was often perceived not so much as the author of specific doctrines, but as the founder of a philosophical way of life (Burkert 1972; Kahn 2001).

1. Pythagoras and the Origins of the Philosophical Tradition

In the treatise De re publica, Cicero connects Pythagoreanism with the development of philosophical inquiry into the cosmos and moral life. He notes that in Platonic dialogues, ethical questions are combined with mathematics, geometry, and harmony (De re publica I, 16).

According to Cicero, Plato himself traveled to Egypt and Southern Italy, where he became acquainted with the teachings of the Pythagoreans and communicated with Archytas of Tarentum (De re publica I, 16). This testimony shows that in the Roman tradition, Pythagoreanism was perceived as one of the most important sources of Platonic philosophy.

Elsewhere, Cicero includes Pythagoras among the philosophers who reflected on the divine origin of the world (De re publica I, 57). Here Pythagoras is mentioned alongside Plato and other thinkers who viewed the cosmos as a rationally ordered whole.

Also noteworthy is the episode in which Cicero rejects the widespread legend that the Roman king Numa Pompilius was a student of Pythagoras (De re publica II, 28–29). The Roman philosopher points out the chronological impossibility of such a connection, thereby demonstrating a critical attitude toward traditional historical narratives.

2. Cosmology and Ethics of Pythagoreanism

Cicero also connects the Pythagorean tradition with the idea of the moral unity of all living beings.

In De re publica, he reports that Pythagoras and Empedocles taught the kinship of all living beings (De re publica III, 18–19).

This testimony reflects one of the characteristic features of Pythagorean philosophy — the idea of the cosmos as a single living order in which all forms of life are interconnected. Such an understanding of the world could serve as a philosophical foundation for prohibiting the killing of animals and for developing the idea of universal kinship among living beings.

As Walter Burkert notes, it is in Pythagoreanism that the concept of philosophy first emerges as a discipline combining cosmology, religious practice, and moral life (Burkert 1972).

3. The Doctrine of the Soul

One of the central elements of Pythagorean philosophy is the doctrine of the soul.

In De senectute, Cicero reports that the Pythagoreans believed that human souls originate from a universal divine spirit (De senectute 78). This idea implies a kinship between the human soul and the cosmic intellect.

Elsewhere in the same work, Cicero conveys the Pythagorean idea that a person should not leave life without the command of a deity:

“vetat enim Pythagoras iniussu imperatoris, id est dei, de praesidio et statione vitae decedere.” (De senectute 73)

“Pythagoras forbids leaving the post of life without the order of the commander, that is, of God.”

Life here is understood as a kind of service entrusted to a person by a higher power.

4. Pythagoras and Divination

A special place in Cicero’s writings is occupied by the connection between Pythagoreanism and the doctrine of divination.

In De divinatione, he notes that Pythagoras contributed to strengthening the authority of belief in divination (De divinatione I, 5).

Later, Pythagoras is included among philosophers who acknowledged the possibility of divination (De divinatione I, 87).

The Pythagoreans also attached great importance to the state of the soul before sleep. Cicero reports that moderation and calmness of the soul promote the occurrence of true visions (De divinatione I, 62–63).

In addition, the Pythagorean tradition attributed significance to words and signs. Certain expressions were considered favorable or unfavorable (De divinatione I, 102). This understanding reflects a broader religious worldview in which events and signs are perceived as manifestations of cosmic order.

5. Philosophical Practices

Cicero reports several practices characteristic of the Pythagorean way of life.

One of them is the exercise of evening self-examination. In De senectute, he writes that the Pythagoreans had the habit of recalling everything said and done during the day each evening (De senectute 38).

Such an exercise combined memory training with moral self-observation. As Pierre Hadot notes, such practices can be seen as examples of ancient “spiritual exercises” aimed at transforming a person’s inner life (Hadot 1995).

6. The Pythagorean School and Philosophical Friendship

The Pythagorean tradition is characterized by a special understanding of friendship.

Cicero cites the famous Pythagorean saying:

“amicorum esse omnia communia.” (De officiis I, 56)

“Among friends, all things are held in common.”

This expression reflects the ideal of moral unity and mutual trust.

In De officiis, Cicero also recounts the story of the Pythagoreans Damon and Phintias (De officiis III, 45), which became a symbol of absolute friendship and loyalty.

7. The Pythagorean School and Political Education

Cicero also connects the Pythagorean tradition with the education of statesmen.

He reports that the Pythagorean Lysis was the teacher of the Theban general Epaminondas (De officiis I, 44).

This testimony shows that a philosophical school could play an important role in shaping political leaders.

8. The Image of Pythagoras

From various references in Cicero’s works, a certain image of Pythagoras emerges.

He is presented as a philosopher of strict character and great authority (De officiis I, 108).

In De senectute, Pythagoras is mentioned among thinkers who remained intellectually active into old age (De senectute 22–23).

Elsewhere, Cicero compares the spiritual strength of Pythagoras with the physical strength of the athlete Milo (De senectute 33), emphasizing the superiority of intellectual and moral energy over physical strength.

Conclusion

An analysis of references to Pythagoras in Cicero’s works shows that for the Roman philosopher, Pythagoreanism represented an important part of the ancient Greek philosophical tradition.

Pythagoras appears as a thinker who unites the cosmology of a harmonious world, the doctrine of the divine nature of the soul, religious ideas about divination, and a system of philosophical practices.

The Pythagorean school is depicted as a philosophical community based on friendship, moral discipline, and the pursuit of wisdom.

Thus, in Cicero’s works, Pythagoras appears not only as the author of philosophical ideas, but as the founder of a philosophical way of life.

Literature

Burkert W.
Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism.
Harvard University Press, 1972.

Hadot P.
Philosophy as a Way of Life.
Blackwell, 1995.

Kahn C.
Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans.
Hackett Publishing, 2001.

All References to Pythagoras in Cicero

Treatise	Location	Content	Philosophical Idea
De re publica	I, 16	Socrates discusses ethical questions in connection with numbers, geometry, and harmony, following Pythagoras	Pythagoras as a source of the unity of ethics and mathematical cosmology
De re publica	I, 16	Plato traveled to Egypt and Italy and studied Pythagorean teachings	Pythagoreanism as a major source of Platonic philosophy
De re publica	I, 57	Pythagoras mentioned among philosophers reflecting on the divine origin of the world	Pythagoras as part of early philosophical theology
De re publica	II, 28–29	Refutation of the legend that Numa was a student of Pythagoras	Historical clarification
De re publica	III, 18–19	Pythagoras and Empedocles taught the kinship of all living beings	Ethical universalism
De legibus	I, 33	“All things are common among friends”	Doctrine of friendship
De legibus	II, 11	Piety strengthened through religious participation	Link between philosophy and religion
De senectute	22–23	Philosophical activity throughout life	Philosophy as lifelong practice
De senectute	33	Comparison with Milo	Superiority of intellect over body
De senectute	38	Evening self-examination	Philosophical practice
De senectute	73	Life as divine duty	Religious ethics
De senectute	78	Soul from divine spirit	Doctrine of the soul
De divinatione	I, 5	Support of divination	Authority of tradition
De divinatione	I, 62–63	Preparation for dreams	Spiritual discipline
De divinatione	I, 87	Acceptance of divination	Philosophical consensus
De divinatione	I, 102	Importance of signs and words	Sacred language
De divinatione	I, 174	Pherecydes predicts earthquake	Natural knowledge
De divinatione	II, 119	Divine nature of the soul	Cosmology
De officiis	I, 56	Ideal friendship	Ethics
De officiis	I, 108	Authority of Pythagoras	Philosophical personality
De officiis	I, 44	Lysis and Epaminondas	Political education
De officiis	III, 45	Damon and Phintias	Ideal friendship